Persistent Infection

Infection which lasts for a long period with continuous display of clinical features. Persistent infection arises due to inability of host cells to clear primary infections completely. When persistent infections are cleared so that infection symptoms are under control they are often referred to as chronic infections. LATENT INFECTIONS are infections in which manifestation of clinical symptoms appear later.

Also Known As:

Networked: 9193 relevant articles (484 outcomes, 613 trials/studies)

Relationship Network

Disease Context: Research Results

Related Diseases

1.	Infections
2.	Neoplasms (Cancer)
3.	Uterine Cervical Dysplasia
4.	Uterine Cervical Neoplasms (Cancer of the Cervix)
5.	Inflammation (Inflammations)

Experts

1.	Wherry, E John: 32 articles (01/2022 - 10/2002)
2.	Ahmed, Rafi: 31 articles (01/2019 - 10/2002)
3.	Bjarnsholt, Thomas: 18 articles (01/2022 - 02/2005)
4.	Oxenius, Annette: 16 articles (01/2022 - 06/2003)
5.	Thimme, Robert: 15 articles (10/2022 - 09/2007)
6.	Lewis, Kim: 15 articles (01/2022 - 01/2010)
7.	Walker, Bruce D: 15 articles (06/2012 - 03/2002)
8.	Freeman, Gordon J: 14 articles (01/2021 - 02/2006)
9.	Lukacher, Aron E: 14 articles (01/2021 - 07/2003)
10.	Høiby, Niels: 14 articles (01/2018 - 11/2003)

Drugs and Biologics

Drugs and Important Biological Agents (IBA) related to Persistent Infection:

1.	VaccinesIBA 01/01/2023 - "In 11 randomized controlled trials with 58,881 healthy women, for persistent infection with HPV 16, 9vHPV was most effective at 97% (RR = 0.03, 95% CI: 0.01-0.08); for HPV 18, 2vHPV (Cecolin) was most effective at 98% (RR = 0.02, 95% CI: 0.00-0.29); for CIN2+ associated with HPV 16 and 18, 4vHPV was most effective at 99% (RR = 0.01, 95% CI: 0.00-0.10) and 97% (RR = 0.03, 95% CI: 0.00-0.45), respectively; for persistent infection with HPV 31, 33, 45, 52, and 58, 9vHPV was ≥ 95% effective; both 2vHPV vaccines were cross-effective against HPV 31, 33, and 45; and 4vHPV was cross-effective against HPV 31. " 01/01/2021 - "In 2006, the first human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine was approved by the Food and Drug Administration in the USA based on pre-licensure clinical trials that found it to be highly efficacious at preventing persistent infection and precancerous, high-grade cervical lesions (HGCLs) caused by viral types the vaccine protects against. " 01/01/2020 - "The E coli-produced HPV-16/18 vaccine is well tolerated and highly efficacious against HPV-16/18-associated high-grade genital lesions and persistent infection in women." 01/01/2013 - "Today, vaccines against HPV, highly effective in the prevention of persistent infection and precancerous lesions, are available for the routine clinical practice. " 01/12/2011 - "Overall vaccines were highly efficacious against 6-month persistent infection with HPV 16 and 18, both in the PPP cohort (RR: 0.06 [0.04-0.09] and 0.05 [0.03-0.09], respectively), and the ITT cohorts (RR: 0.15 [0.10-0.23] and 0.24 [0.14-0.42], respectively). "
2.	Anti-Bacterial Agents (Antibiotics)IBA 05/19/2020 - "Put together, our study indicates that WH is very effective in inhibiting the growth of multiple types of bacteria, is synergistic to antibiotics, and is also effective against staphylococcal pathogenesis, often the cause of persistent infections. " 01/01/2022 - "Therefore, we advocate that improved antibiotic treatment of chronic infection is achievable when antibiotics are recommended on the basis of susceptibility testing in relevant in vitro conditions that resemble actual infectious microenvironments. " 11/15/2023 - "There is a need to discover and develop non-toxic antibiotics that are effective against metabolically dormant bacteria, which underlie chronic infections and promote antibiotic resistance. " 10/28/2022 - "Chronic infections often contain biofilm-forming bacteria, which are challenging to eradicate due to increased antibiotic tolerance; thus, new and improved therapeutic strategies are warranted. " 01/05/2016 - "These results suggested GPA NPs might be a promising antibacterial agent for effective treatment of chronic infections due to microbial biofilm and intracellular bacteria."
3.	Antiviral Agents (Antivirals)IBA 01/01/2020 - "Thus, while the goal of complete elimination of hepatitis C virus was feasible in Western countries, it was more difficult in high-prevalence countries where improvement in the detection of chronic infection (with rapid serological and virological diagnostic tests), outsourcing of diagnostic and therapeutic care and access to direct oral antivirals are urgently needed." 10/01/2008 - "Identification of the factors affecting clearance rates will be important for future antiviral drug developments and it may give insights into the mechanisms involved in clearance of other chronic infections, such as human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C virus." 01/01/2016 - "Direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) have significantly improved the treatment response in HCV chronic infection with higher potency and better tolerance. " 01/01/2017 - "Previous studies have shown that it is possible to extract the drug efficacy of antivirals from the viral decay rate of chronic infections. " 11/01/2006 - "One obstacle inhibiting the clearance of persistent infections is functional inactivation of antiviral T cells. "
4.	AntigensIBA 12/17/2019 - "Clearance of Staphylococcus aureus from In Vivo Models of Chronic Infection by Immunization Requires Both Planktonic and Biofilm Antigens." 10/07/2000 - "The detection of persistent infection in animals less than seven months old was improved either by retesting one year later, by using an antigen-capture ELISA or, in selected cases, by the analysis of original serum samples by reverse-transcription PCR. " 09/07/1994 - "The model predicts the existence of a group of persistent infections which result from slow growing replicating antigens and can be cleared by a boosting dose of antigen. " 02/07/1993 - "We show that responses can be of two types; either the antigen is completely eliminated or the immune system fails to eliminate the antigen and chronic infection results. " 01/01/2018 - "A recently available commercial assay for the detection of HEV antigen (HEV-Ag ELISA, Wantai diagnostics) may enable the study of HEV-Ag dynamics in such persistent infections, however currently there is no confirmatory test available. "
5.	AntibodiesIBA 07/01/2003 - "aeruginosa has been shown to induce opsonic antibodies in mice that are protective against this chronic infection. " 01/01/1998 - "The presence of antibodies to HCV, however, does not distinguish between those with chronic infection and those who had cleared the virus. " 10/15/2016 - "Recent studies imply that this may occur because generally inefficient transcytosis across intact mucosal surfaces could be enhanced for specific viruses with bound antibodies and in the presence of acidic pH. We found that transcytosis of both cell-free and cell-associated viruses with diverse envelopes was significantly decreased in the presence of either antibodies or plasma from chronically infected transmitting partners regardless of pH. Transmitted variants also did not have greater transmigration as compared to chronic-infection strains. " 07/01/2012 - "Functional studies with a large panel of patient-derived antibodies showed that this mechanism mediates viral escape, leading to persistent infection in general. " 04/01/2008 - "The first cohort showed that most antibodies were lost within less than 4 months of the first sampling if a persistent infection was not present, so the study of the second-year cohort involved collecting samples from individuals every 2 weeks over a 3-month period. "
6.	Papillomavirus Vaccines (HPV Vaccines)IBA 01/12/2011 - "Prophylactic HPV vaccines are safe, well tolerated, and highly efficacious in preventing persistent infections and cervical diseases associated with vaccine-HPV types among young females. " 04/01/2011 - "Several clinical trials show that recombinant HPV vaccines are safe and effective in preventing persistent infection of HPV and associated anogenital lesions. " 10/01/2019 - "Efficacy of HPV vaccines is close to 100% when using a three-dose schedule in HPV-negative young women (<25 years old) for protection against persistent infection and HPV vaccine-type associated pre-cancerous lesions. " 10/01/2023 - "Incidence rates of HPV6/11/16/18/31/33/45/52/58-related 6-month persistent infection in males and females were low (54.6 and 52.4 per 10000 person-years, respectively) and within ranges expected in vaccinated cohorts, based on previous human papillomavirus vaccine efficacy trials. " 01/01/2022 - "Design of a phase III efficacy, immunogenicity, and safety study of 9-valent human papillomavirus vaccine in prevention of oral persistent infection in men."
7.	Proteins (Proteins, Gene)FDA Link 04/01/2016 - "A recombinant plasmid pVAX-RON5p, which can express part of RON5 protein in the eukaryocyte, was generated and used to immune BALB/c mice for evaluating the protective efficacy against the acute and chronic infections of T. " 04/01/2011 - "Thus, while SIV Vif is necessary for persistent infection by Pt-tropic HIV-1, improved expression and inhibition of APOBEC3 proteins may be required for robust viral replication in vivo. " 01/01/2022 - "This study reveals a novel function of JEV NS1' protein and lays the foundation for future studies of JEV persistent infection in pig tonsils." 01/01/2022 - "Recent studies have demonstrated that several parasite effector proteins are translocated to host cells during the bradyzoite stage of chronic infection. " 01/01/2019 - "Clinical and molecular studies of HCV have shown that it results in persistent infection in 75% to 85% of cases due to its high replication rate, its existence as a quasispecies with a high mutation rate and the ability of HCV proteins to blunt and ultimately exhaust the HCV immune response. "
8.	RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)IBA 10/01/2014 - "Furthermore, HCV-RNA testing should be recommended immediately before initiation of HCV treatment, to find the subset of HIV/HCV co-infected patients with IL28B CC that may have cleared their chronic infection spontaneously." 05/01/2012 - "Identification of the immune mechanisms required for the clearance of MeV RNA from multiple sites will enlighten our understanding of the development of disease owing to persistent infection." 05/01/2005 - "Positive results for anti-hepatitis C virus (HCV) testing reveal subjects are infected by HCV, with presence of HCV RNA indicating persistent infection. " 05/01/2018 - "In the present study, we used RNA-Seq, a high-throughput method based on next-generation sequencing, to profile the expression of genes during the period of NNV persistent infection. " 01/01/2018 - "5,543 individuals participated in the study with an overall weighted anti-HCV prevalence of 3.6% (95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 3.0%-4.2%) and chronic infection (HCV Ribonucleic acid test positive) of 2.6% (95% CI: 2.0%-3.1%). "
9.	Ribavirin (Virazole)FDA LinkGeneric 09/17/2009 - "Although the recommended treatment for chronic infection involves a 48-week course of peginterferon-alpha-2b (PegIFN-alpha-2b) or -alpha-2a (PegIFN-alpha-2a) combined with ribavirin (RBV), it is well known that many patients will not be cured by treatment, and that patients of European ancestry have a significantly higher probability of being cured than patients of African ancestry. " 02/01/2006 - "The achievement of EVR is a prerequisite to the successful therapy for chronic infection with HCV with the combination of PEG-IFNalpha and ribavirin. " 01/01/2018 - "Hepatitis E virus (HEV) can induce chronic infections in the case of immunosuppression, which are sometimes not cured with ribavirin. " 01/01/2022 - "Ribavirin was provided to 16 patients (47%; 40% with acute and 57% with chronic infection), in median for 75 days. " 01/01/2021 - "Ribavirin is the only validated treatment in chronic infection. "
10.	InterferonsIBA 12/01/2019 - "Although interferon-based treatment strategies hold great promise for combating chronic infection and HCC, many patients do not respond to the IFN-based drugs for reasons not completely understood. " 10/01/1974 - "The addition of 1,000 U of exogenous interferon to the cultures cured only the rabbit embryo and Vero cells of the persistent infection. " 01/01/2018 - "New studies suggest that establishment of persistent infection and reactivation are related to variations in interferon-mediated control of viral replication. " 10/01/2017 - "In the present study, a C. psittaci strain 6BC persistent infection cell model was induced using interferon (IFN)‑γ, alterations in the infectivity and morphology of the pathogen were analyzed, and the transcript profile of seven selected genes was analyzed. " 10/01/1959 - "These results strengthen the suggestion that interferon may play a decisive role in the establishment and maintenance of persistent infections in the system under study. "

Therapies and Procedures

1.	Therapeutics 10/01/2014 - "Furthermore, the use of conventional pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) surrogates correlating pharmacokinetics in serum with clinical cure and presumed or proven eradication of the pathogen as a basis for PK/PD investigations in CF patients is irrelevant, as minimization of systemic exposure is one of the main objectives of aerosolized therapy; in addition, bacterial pathogens cannot be eradicated, and chronic infection cannot be cured. " 06/01/2010 - "Two patients with persistent infection were successfully cured with the high-dose dual therapy. " 03/01/2000 - "Six months after completion of therapy the symptoms of HP-eradicated patients improved considerably (score values 17.4 +/- 1.5 and 10.2 +/- 0.8, respectively, p < 0.01) whereas symptoms of patients with persistent infection remained unchanged (21.1 +/- 1.7 and 20.4 +/- 1.5, n.s.) and only improved after successful retherapy (20.4 +/- 1.5 and 11.7 +/- 2.1, p < 0.05). " 01/01/2016 - "Major advances in characterizing viral replication have led to the development of direct-acting anti-viral therapies that have considerably improved patient treatment outcome and can even cure chronic infection. " 11/01/2006 - "Because efficacy of this therapy remains suboptimal and side effects sometimes problematic, major efforts have been put forward by scientists and the pharmaceutical industry to develop alternative treatments for this chronic infection. "
2.	Arthroplasty 01/01/2012 - "Two-stage revision is regarded by many as the best treatment of chronic infection in hip arthroplasties. " 12/01/2013 - "Two-stage revision arthroplasty remains the gold standard in chronic infections, but is associated with a high complication rate. " 11/01/2000 - "Between January 1994 and August 1998, 12 patients with 13 chronic infections after resection arthroplasty were treated successfully with vastus lateralis muscleflap. " 09/15/2020 - "Although reported success rates are high, and comparable with complete revision arthroplasty in cases of chronic infections, the quality of the studies included is poor. " 01/01/2018 - "This study aimed to evaluate the clinical outcomes and persistent infection rate of two-stage revision of infected shoulder arthroplasty. "
3.	Debridement 10/01/1997 - "Its use, together with radical debridement of dead bone, has reduced the incidence of chronic infection and improved the prognosis of vascular repairs. " 11/01/2023 - "The number of patients requiring surgical intervention (debridement) and/or developing a chronic infection was determined. " 01/01/2023 - "Overall, 11 patients (33%) had treatment failure, including 5 patients who failed to undergo THA, 2 interim re-debridement for persistent infection, and 4 patients who developed PJI after an average of 7 months (0.3-13) following THA. " 12/01/2022 - "The presence of low virulence microorganisms which might act as true pathogens should always be considered as a causative factor leading to persistent infections that require open surgical debridement and washout. " 09/01/2022 - "Irrigation and debridement (I&D) with implant retention were performed in acute cases and two-stage revisions in chronic infections. "
4.	Immunotherapy 01/01/2023 - "Mechanistically, a cell-intrinsic mTOR signal was vital for differentiation of stem-like T cells into the TIM3+ state in the early and late phases of chronic infection as well as during PD-1 immunotherapy. " 01/01/2023 - "Model simulations predict different windows of opportunity for perturbation in acute and chronic infection scenarios, with potential implications for optimization of targeted immunotherapy." 12/01/2020 - "Ex-vivo antibody blockade of KLRG1 restored the function of HIV-specific exhausted CD8+ T cells demonstrating the contribution of KLRG1+ population to T cell exhaustion and providing an immunotherapy target to treat HIV chronic infection. " 12/17/2019 - "These findings uncover additional molecular mechanisms of how "CD4+ T cell help" regulates CD8+ T cell differentiation during persistent infection and have implications toward optimizing the generation of protective CD8+ T cells in immunotherapy." 10/01/2018 - "LN memory T cells display high homology to a subset of mouse CD8+ T cells identified in chronic infection models that respond to checkpoint blockade immunotherapy. "
5.	Transplantation 03/01/2004 - "Previous studies demonstrated that porcine encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) caused acute and persistent infection in the myocardium, central nervous system, and spleen of non-human primates (cynomolgus macaques); and it productively infected primary human cardiomyocytes, suggesting that the virus may pose a risk in pig-to-human transplantation. " 01/01/2023 - "Although considered to be non-pathogenic, its presence and titer have been shown to be indicative of altered immune status in individuals with chronic infections or following allogeneic transplantations. " 03/19/2021 - "It is well known that chronic infections in CF patients have a significant impact on lung-function decline and survival before transplantation. " 02/01/2019 - "The HPgV specific real-time reverse transcription PCR screening identified 51 of 122 positive samples, high virus loads and persistent infections up to 1 year after transplantation. " 01/01/2018 - "In PID patients, persistent infection and autoimmunity with end-organ damage cause particular problems with approach to transplantation. "