The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a cellular organelle that is physiologically responsible for protein folding,
calcium homeostasis, and
lipid biosynthesis. Pathological stimuli such as oxidative stress,
ischemia, disruptions in
calcium homeostasis, and increased production of normal and/or folding-defective
proteins all contribute to the accumulation of misfolded
proteins in the ER, causing ER stress. The adaptive response to ER stress is the activation of unfolded protein response (UPR), which affect a wide variety of cellular functions to maintain ER homeostasis or lead to apoptosis. Three different ER transmembrane sensors, including PKR-like ER
kinase (PERK),
activating transcription factor 6 (ATF6), and
inositol-requiring enzyme-1 (IRE1), are responsible for initiating UPR. The UPR involves a variety of signal transduction pathways that reduce unfolded
protein accumulation by boosting ER-resident chaperones, limiting protein translation, and accelerating unfolded protein degradation. ER is now acknowledged as a critical organelle in sensing dangers and determining cell life and death. On the other hand, UPR plays a critical role in the development and progression of several diseases such as
cardiovascular diseases (CVD), metabolic disorders,
chronic kidney diseases,
neurological disorders, and
cancer. Here, we critically analyze the most current knowledge of the master regulatory roles of ER stress particularly the PERK pathway as a conditional danger receptor, an organelle crosstalk regulator, and a regulator of protein translation. We highlighted that PERK is not only ER stress regulator by sensing UPR and ER stress but also a frontier sensor and direct senses for gut microbiota-generated metabolites. Our work also further highlighted the function of PERK as a central hub that leads to metabolic reprogramming and epigenetic modification which further enhanced inflammatory response and promoted trained immunity. Moreover, we highlighted the contribution of ER stress and PERK in the pathogenesis of several diseases such as
cancer, CVD,
kidney diseases, and
neurodegenerative disorders. Finally, we discuss the therapeutic target of ER stress and PERK for
cancer treatment and the potential novel therapeutic targets for CVD, metabolic disorders, and
neurodegenerative disorders. Inhibition of ER stress, by the development of small molecules that target the PERK and UPR, represents a promising therapeutic strategy.