The primary aim of this study was to determine the associations between serum, dietary, and supplemental
vitamin D levels and
insulin resistance in 6294 non-diabetic U.S. adults. A total of 8 years of data from the 2011−2018 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) and a cross-sectional design were utilized to answer the research questions. Serum
vitamin D levels were quantified using high-performance liquid chromatography−tandem mass spectrometry. Dietary and supplemental
vitamin D intakes were assessed using the average of two 24 h dietary recalls taken 3−10 days apart. The homeostatic model assessment (HOMA), based on fasting
glucose and fasting
insulin levels, was employed to index
insulin resistance. Demographic covariates were age, sex, race, and year of assessment. Differences in physical activity, body mass index (BMI), cigarette smoking,
body weight, season, and energy intake were also controlled statistically. Serum levels of
vitamin D differed significantly, and in a dose−response order, across quartiles of HOMA-IR, after adjusting for year, age, sex, and race (F = 30.3, p < 0.0001) and with all the covariates controlled (F = 5.4, p = 0.0029). Dietary
vitamin D levels differed similarly across HOMA-IR quartiles, but to a lesser extent, respectively (F = 8.1, p = 0.0001; F = 2.9, p = 0.0437). Likewise, supplemental
vitamin D levels also differed across the HOMA-IR quartiles, respectively (F = 3.5, p = 0.0205; F = 3.3, p = 0.0272). With all the covariates controlled, the odds of having
insulin resistance were significantly greater for those in the lowest quartile of serum and supplemental
vitamin D intake compared to the other quartiles combined. In conclusion, in this nationally representative sample, serum, dietary, and supplemental
vitamin D were each predictive of
insulin resistance, especially in those with low serum levels and those with no supplemental intake of
vitamin D.